Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. Vassolo S. 2012. It is used to supplement the domestic and industrial water demand of Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Volcanic massifs from the Adamaoua to the Atlantic. Further water and related statistics can be accessed at the Aquastat Main Database. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. (I accept). It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. The Kenya Water Resources Management Authority shall have the following powers and functions: Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). Freya Van Kesteren, Sossusvlei Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. The largest is Lake Chad, of which 800 km2 (Little Chad phase) to 1 800 km2 (Normal Chad phase) are Cameroon territory, or 840% of the lake area, depending on the floods (Welcomme, 1979). Molua EL and Lambi CM. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). . Water Supply and Sanitation in Cameroon. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Overall, relative seasonal contribution revealed that grazers, such as Suidae and zebra, contribute more to lion diet in the late dry season when these species are heavily dependent on frequent access to surface-water. In contrast, analysis of faeces tends to be biased against species with less hair, such as elephants, and very large bodied prey for which the body surface/volume ratio is smaller than for smaller species [37], and hence the likelihood of predators eating hairs is smaller. Water Practice and Technology. Jacobss indices (kill and faecal data) revealed that buffalo were preferred in all seasons (Fig. In our study, lions preyed mainly on elephant juveniles at the end of the dry season of a very dry year (October-November 2005), supporting previous findings that young elephants make up an unusually large proportion of lion prey in Hwange in the dry season during years of low rainfall [19]. The Lake Chad basin aquifer contains three main aquifer units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. More information on the derivation and interpretation of these statistics can be seen on the FAO Aquastat website. For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). Further north, flows are continuous all year round, with only one peak flood (i.e., Sanaga and Wouri). Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. The whole country suffered from droughts in 1981-87, 1991-1999, 2001-2005 . Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo. They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. A BGR project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) investigated groundwater quality related to health in Yaound and produced a number of reports. Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. Twelve-year-old Akoela Francis Kame and his younger brother walk one-kilometer each day to fetch water here. This aquifer is not vulnerable to saline intrusion (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. (2013) Seasonal Diet and Prey Preference of the African Lion in a Waterhole-Driven Semi-Arid Savanna. 1998). In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. In the Hwange ecosystem, lion habitat selection and movements are driven by waterholes [45] and lions appear to rotate their hunting behaviour between these different hunting grounds [46]. Given the propensity of kill investigations to be biased towards large prey, this is likely an underestimation and it should be considered that juvenile zebra are highly selected for by lions. Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! Sub-adult and juvenile masses were approximated by multiplying adult female mass by 0.7 and 0.3 respectively [1]. Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. Required fields are marked *. Values >0 indicate preference, values <0 suggest use but avoidance. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. Conceived and designed the experiments: ZD AJL DWM FM. What are specific water sources the Lions exploit? In communities where neither springs nor stand taps are unavailable, the population drink from open streams that also serve for laundry and bathing. Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. 2). We owe thanks to Wilderness Safaris, The Hide Safaris, Touch the Wild Safaris, Zimbabwe Sun international and the Gwaai ICA for permission to work on their concessions. For kill data, we reported the relative contribution of each prey age class per season. Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. Zeke Davidson, The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). WWF findings show that cholera and typhoid are amongst the top health challenges within communities near rivers due to inaccessibility to drinkable water. An average of 300 people depend on the water source, says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Kill analysis revealed 14 different species being utilised by lions (Table 1). These sandstones form a productive aquifer, with permeabilities of around 8 to 80 m/day; transmissivities of 300 to 1700 m/day; and a storage coefficient of 0.025. Hence, buffalo are likely to have a crucial influence on the spatial and behavioural ecology of lions in the Hwange ecosystem in all seasons. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. Etosha Boreholes are between 60 and 200 m deep (UN 1988). The main water source for the Tsavo West national park is Lake Jipe, which sradles the border with Tanzania, according to Kipongoso, its level had dropped 10 meters (33 feet) in a decade. Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! The coastal plain and southern plateau are dominated by equatorial rainforest. From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country, Cameroon. Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon. Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. Timber logging provides significant government income, but is relatively poorly regulated. The best yields are found where fractured rocks are overlain with a thick weathered zone or thick alluvium. Then-Gov. Because several non-independent samples were collected at one site, we used one faecal sample only per kill site to avoid any pseuso-replication [27]. "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. 18, ST/TCD/5. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. We assessed lion diet by combining carcass observations and faeces collection from GPS clusters, a method with recognized strengths [3], [4]. Overall, juveniles represented one third of the zebra carcasses found. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. Some - eg Mamf - contain evaporites. Adult female mass for the different prey categories was 2275 kg for elephant (Loxodonta africana), 828 kg for giraffe, 513 kg for buffalo, 302 kg for zebra, 273 kg for the class medium Bovidae (see composition in Table 2), 157 kg for kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 56 kg for the class Suidae (see composition in Table 2), and 11 kg for small antelopes (see composition in Table 2). Some groundwater in deeper aquifers contains low oxygen and corresponding high iron and even hydrogen sulphate gas (Mafany and Fandong 2006). Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon. The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). Samples were washed, sieved and sun dried to remove organic matter, and spread in a grid sampling tray. Was established in 1996 and it is managed by the pvt. No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. : 19 192 m3/year, Per Capita in 2005 As in data were modified to ensure consistency with water resources data. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. AMCOW. Smithsonian's national zoo curtin 4 sources and specific techniques used in african history: The black umfolozi river is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. GWP (Global Water Partnership). Mafany GT and Fantong WY. 2013. From buffalo to hippo and even adult elephant the there are prides that have adapted to preying on all. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). 2017. The pools go by a variety of names: prairie potholes, whale wallows, hog wallows, sinks, and kettles. feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Three seasons are distinguished: the wet season (November-February), with long-term mean rainfall of 513.6160.0 mm, wide spread surface-water availability and abundant, high quality browse and grazing; the early dry season (March-June), long-term mean rainfall of 111.172.8 mm with decreasing fodder quality and surface-water availability; and the late dry season (JulyOctober), long-term mean rainfall of 25.026.6 mm with surface-water restricted to artificial waterholes and very few natural pans, while deciduous trees lose their foliage and both browse and grazing is of the lowest quality during the year. 2006. doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. 3A). Groundwater quality is generally good. In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al. With the help of hydrology experts and in support of the kenya wildlife service, we have drilled 32 boreholes, including 29 boreholes in the tsavo conservation area. Juveniles were taken almost exclusively (Fig. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey water downstream during this.! This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. Samples were collected during kill site investigations, air dried and stored in paper bags for later analysis. Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape Chambers One, 27 Willie van Performed the experiments: ZD JEH FVK. Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. Where is Cameroon in the World? 2009). They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users. Please see the Terms of use for more information. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. Medium Bovidae contributed least in the late dry season (Fig. 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. Mambele, situated some 800 km from the nations capital Yaounde, is one of 21 communities around Lobeke with over 23000 inhabitants. Seasonal Water Sources; Seasonal Water Sources. This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. As a country in Africa, Cameroon is situated just between the Central and Western Regions of Africa. We thank Matt Hayward, Craig Tambling and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous draft. 2009). It is covered by 6 of the 8 main climatic units encountered in Cameroon (Kpoumi 2015) which are: (1) altitudinal tropical climate of the Adamawa; (2) mountainous tropical climate of the West;. Chari provides an outstanding home for some fish species including nile and perch, making it an important fishing ground for many local communities. Cameroon has two major rivers, the Sanaga, the longest at about 525 km (325 miles) long and the Wouri, the largest. We assessed seasonal prey preference using Jacobs selection index [35]: Where r is the proportion of the total number of kills or faecal samples of a particular species and p is the proportional availability of the prey species killed. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Zeke Davidson, The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country >> Hydrogeology of Cameroon. Abstraction boreholes in the Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo basins are typically between 120 and 180 m deep. We were horrified seeing first hand the daily struggle for survival these precious women faced and our hearts went out to them. Analyzed the data: ZD MV. Your email address will not be published. Tsavo National Park - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? There is a coastal plain that extends 15-150 km inland; the south Cameroon plateau that rises from the coastal plain to more than 600 m; the Cameroon chain of mountains, hills and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast (Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 m) almost to Lake Chad on the northern border; the Adamawa Plateau in the centre of the country, with an average elevation of 1,100 m; and a northern lowland region, which extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an elevation of around 300 m. The climate varies across the country, controlled by topography. Of the 322 billion cubic meters of total available water resources, groundwater constitutes 21% (57 billion cubic meters) of this resource (Ako Ako et al. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. This brochure contains only modifications / changes, undertaken on the longitudinal This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. For each season, we also calculated the availability of each distance-to-water category in the study area. Africa Groundwater Atlas: Hydrogeology of Cameroon. Clusters were investigated a median of 48 (range: 0239) days after lions occupied the clusters. Pronounced correctly, with a harsh and rolling g, the word sounds nothing like the perfect angles and subtle patterns this lovely antelope displays. Some seasonal patterns were suggested for secondary prey, however. It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. Lake Chad There are a number of natural lakes in Cameroon. 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