Some scholars and political observers have lauded ASEAN as one of the most successful examples of regionalism and often point out to the absence of any prolonged military conflict or open confrontation between its member states since the end of the Cold War as a testament to ASEANs success. Jones, Michael E. Forging an ASEAN Identity: The Challenge to Construct a Shared Destiny. Contemporary Southeast Asia 26, no. Jakarta: Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, 2017. Jeevan Vasagar. Despite their stated intention, it was most probably never the intent of the political elites to build a regional project that erodes national boundaries and imagine itself as a region of collective past, present and future. A map of Asia by Sebastian Munster dated in 1598 further illustrate the absence of territorial boundaries across the entire Southeast Asia region and depicted the region as a continuum in which its inhabitants perceived it as a shared common space (Munster 1598). As Farish Noor points out, there is no common history textbook that captures the manifold overlaps and continuities in Southeast Asian history, or which reflects the manner in which many communities that exist in the region today are really the net result of centuries of intermingling, overlapping, and hybridity. (ibid.). It prevents Southeast Asians from subscribing to multiple identities of being both a citizen of their nation and a member of the ASEAN Community. Caballero-Anthony, Mely. Indonesia's Foreign Policy. The negative effects stated in Documents 2 and 7 shows how bitter sweet the effect of imperialism . However, as ASEAN moves into the twenty-first century, global disruptive forces have challenged the integrity and stability of ASEAN and its member states. Since the first contact with Westerners, starting with the Portuguese and Spanish explorers, the islands have been colonized by various European and Asian countries. K.N Chaudhuris (1990) research shows that pre-colonial Southeast Asia was a multi-polar world with overlapping spheres of geographic, economic and political system all co-existing simultaneously. The same language games played by the colonial functionaries continue to be played by the political elites of Southeast Asia which informs present-day sensibilities in the statecraft, economy and international relations of the region. For instance, racialised colonial capitalismwas implemented across the colonies in which a racialized hierarchy was introduced that stratified ethnic communities into their respective social and economic roles (Noor 2106). Since then, efforts have been made by the ASEAN member states to cultivate a collective ASEAN identity by fostering a sentiment of we feeling which will inform regionalism efforts and facilitate greater cooperation between Southeast Asians in the political, security, economic and cultural arena (Murti 2016). Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org . Malaysia reject proposal by Philippine government committee to claim Sabah as 13th federal state. Channel NewsAsia, January 31, 2018. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/malaysia-rejects-proposal-by-philippine-government-committee-to-9913514. These were different in each area and some of the differences, notably between China and the rest of Asia, may be instructive as they can help us better to under-stand idiosyncratic aspects of the diverse history of modern Asia. One example is how Singapores national identity is attached to the idea of exceptionalism that portrays the country as an economically advanced, meritocratic, multi-ethnic state as opposed to the constitutive other of economically backward, corrupted, communal states in the region. /asiapacific/commentary-colonialism-s-long-shadow-over-southeast-asia-today-7887758. From its roots as an inward-looking multilateral regional arrangement, ASEAN has since expanded its geographical scope to engage with external powers in the Asia Pacific region through the creation of modalities such as the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and Republic of Korea) in 1997 and East Asia Summit in 2005 (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116). Colonial governments feared this eventuality and worked to prevent it. A political vocabulary underpinned by the logics of geopolitical division, territoriality, ethnic-cultural differences and national interest became the dominant language of governmentality in the region. Smith, Anthony L. ASEANs Ninth Summit: Solidifying Regional Cohesion, Advancing External Linkages. Contemporary Southeast Asia 26, no. Lee Jun Jie 2 (June 2007): 179-195. However, for such a mammoth undertaking to take place, a significant cognitive transition must be made by the people of ASEAN that exceed the confines of temporality and space to re-imagine the region. From the Editor: Southeast Asias Artful Diplomacy? ASEAN shall have, by the year 2020, established a peaceful and stable Southeast Asia where each nation is at peace with itself and where the causes for conflict have been eliminated, through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law and through the strengthening of national and regional resilience. (Association of Southeast Asian Nation, 2018). An awareness and internalization of the logic that identities can be overlapping and not mutually exclusive must be made. Instead, self-interest and functional considerations continue to drive the policy decisions of the bureaucrats of ASEAN (Hund 2010). Christie, Clive J. Consequently, the ASEAN Community and ASEAN Identity only exist in form but not in substance. 9 For such a venture, it may be instructive to learn from the mental maps of the indigenous communities such as the Bajao of the Sulu Seas or the Dayaks of Borneo who have stubbornly insisted on the rejection of fixed political geography or exclusive national identities as imposed by distant power centers. As the European colonizers were anxious to safeguard their economic interest and avoid any possible territorial conflicts with their counterparts, they saw a need to demarcate well-defined political boundaries to minimize any ambiguity over the extent of their rule. Nation Branding in Post-Coup Thailand: A Strategy for Political Legitimation? Such endeavors can be based on regional narratives involving judicious use of cultural values and markers that create a perception of the commonality of the region as a whole. Deutsch, Karl Wolfgang et al. I. Indeed, if Acharyas claim that an collective identity has been successfully developed among the political elites of ASEAN was true, one may question why recent events have pointed out to an increasing lack of regional cohesiveness and why the political elites of ASEAN have made repeated attempts to highlight the urgency to create an ASEAN community and identity if it is already a given? They accepted the existing state as the foundation of a modern nation, which they, rather than colonial officials, would control. 2. Social change was desired only insofar as it might strengthen these activities. In addition, his evidence for the existence of a collective identity remains focused on functional aspects, namely, member states adherence to ASEAN norms such as the principle of non-interference and absolute respect for national sovereignty (Acharya 2005). Roberts, Christopher. HC441.B64 2007 330.95'041dc22 2007006545 An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. We will discuss the motivations behind British colonial expansion, as well as the effects that imperialism had on both colonized and . In the economic sphere impact also the western imperialism had a mixed impact. Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia,Trendsetters, December 2018. Imperialism affected imperialised peoples in both positive and negative ways. ASEAN Vision 2020. Accessed 15 January, 2018. http://asean.org/?static_post=asean-vision-2020. From the 16th century until the 20th century, the major colonizers in Southeast Asia were European powers, including the British, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese. 2 (March 2003): 231-250. The revolts, and the economic disarray of the Great Depression, also suggested that European rule was neither invulnerable nor without flaws. However, as studies have shown, most people living in Southeast Asia remain largely unaware or remain ambivalent of the ASEAN community building initiative and would not identify themselves as a member of the ASEAN Community (Moorthy and Benny 2013; Thuzar 2015). See Royston Sim, Pedra Blanca: ICJ to hear Malaysias challenge in June,. This article focuses more on modern colonization, which began around the 15th century. Similar to Benedict Andersons imagined community of a nation; a regional identity can also be imagined (Anderson 1983). They were being forced to leave their families and work without pay. As such, a ground-up approach may offer greater prospects in the creation of a collective regional identity and go a long way in helping to develop a shared sense of belonging that transcends national boundaries. 2 (Spring 1990): 15051. A sort of a mental leap must be taken. Rather than appropriating shared elements of history, language and material culture as theirs in a nationalistic manner, Southeast Asians should embrace these heritages as a common trove of cultural treasures that is a testament to the cross-cultural hybridization and people-to-people exchange that has been occurring between them generation after generation dating back to the pre-colonial era (Noor 2016). ASEAN citizens will not reach the level of trust and solidarity required for the formation of an ASEAN Community if they continue to see each other in adversarial terms. Kei Koga, Associate Professor, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Thailand Renewed power rivalry between the US and China has also forced the region to look for new ways to balance their interests (Acharya 2017: 25-38). In order to facilitate its economic and resource exploitation, infrastructure networks were further expanded by the colonial rulers to connect both people and territories within their colonial states (ibid.). The deeper connections between an earlier era of urban development and colonialism become apparent when looking at these shareholders and where they got the capital that they invested in the forms of segregation that became foundational for the rise of Jim Crow. As existing literature have already been inundated by realist interpretations that mainly focus on the political and economic dimensions of ASEANs integration, this article will venture to shift away from this direction and take a constructivist approach that emphasizes on the development of a collective identity that is based on a sentiment of we-feeling as an essential component in the building of a resilient ASEAN community. Intra-regional people-to-people interaction at the ground level should therefore be highly encouraged. London: George Eyre and Andrew Strahan, 1810. . While the boundaries of Southeast Asia, both epistemic and geographic, were inchoate, regional identity did exist in the region in a pre-modern sense. Towards Community Formation in Southeast Asia? Elsewhere, war and confusion held societies in their grip for much shorter periods, but everywhere rulers were compelled to think of changed circumstances around them and what they meant for the future. Initially founded by the five member-states of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand on 8 August 1967, it has since expanded to include Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia and now encompasses 10 countries of differing ethnicities, political systems, cultures, geographies and economic activities. It would be difficult to ask them to think otherwise. Moreover, it is unfair to say that ASEAN has no cultural and geographical foundation for the creation of a shared community and collective identity. From the Editor Myanmars Transition Stalled: From Opening to Coup, The International Court of Justice ruled in favour of Cambodia in 2013 with the temple of Preah Vihear and most of the nearby land belonging to Cambodia. . It did this through bringing medicine and education. 1 (1999): 77-88.Vejjajiva, Abhisit. David M. Malitz, Senior Research Fellow, DIJ, Japan, Vietnam Historical evidences indicate that the pre-colonial Southeast Asian possessed a worldview that did not conform to the Westphalian notion of territorial sovereignty. Consequently, an unsatisfactory rejection on the possibility of the formation of a genuine ASEAN community is often made. A revamp of history education in the region is critical in such a venture. Historical works have shown that forms of regional linkages had already existed prior to the advent of colonialism (Steinberg 1971). They divided villages and ethnic communities to make territories into countries with borders. In those scenarios, member states that are keen to maintain a close political and economic linkage with China are reluctant to agree on a common stance that is beneficial to the region out of fear that it may risk their diplomatic relations with China (Yoshimatsu 2012). Political instability. In many areas there also was a deep-seated hatred of control by foreigners, whether they be the Europeans themselves or the Chinese, Indians, or others who were perceived as creatures of their rule. Map of Ethnic Groups in MMSEA. May 2005. A Modern History of SoutheastAsia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism. A history of Southeast Asia: critical crossroads. . Colonialism is defined as "control by one power over a dependent area or people.". Questioning the Importance of Halal Tourism in Indonesia, The Impact of Implementation of Security Laws on Civilians in the Deep South of Thailand, Indonesias Democratic Trajectory: An Agrarian Political Economy Perspective, Rodrigo Dutertes Toolbox of Media Co-optation: The mainstream media vs. illiberal democracy in social media, The Legal Weapon Killing Democracy in Thailands Deep South, Copyright 2023 | Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia | All Rights Reserved, A new form of authoritarianism has emerged in Southeast Asia since the mid-2010s. 3 (July-Sept 2011): 407-435. The most serious circumstances were undoubtedly those of Vietnam, where from 1771 to 1802 there raged a strugglethe Tay Son rebellionover the very nature of the state. Hooghe, Liesbet and Gary Marks. . To do so, ASEAN must quickly shed its image as an exclusive club for the elite and maximize public participation if it wishes to build a genuine ASEAN community. Imperialists also set up infrastructure and governments. Given the arduous tasks of nation-building that seeks to unite the disparate ethnic and religious communities within the political boundaries are inherited from the colonial rulers, the governments of nascent Southeast Asian states forged national identities based on constructed, distinctive national characteristics and values that supposedly sets them apart from their neighbours (Narine 2004). Modesto City School. Engendering a Deep Sense of ASEAN Identity and Destiny. In Framing the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Post-2015, ERIA Research Project Report 2014-01, edited by Intal, Jr. P., V. Anbumozhi, F. Zen, H. Nishimura and R. Prassetya, 209-231. Scholars inquiring along this line of argument also based their work on the premise that world politics is essentially a competition for power and they are inclined to explain the fragility of regional cooperation and identity as a natural outcome of rational, self-interested state behavior. While ASEAN as a language game played by the political elites is not united by any geographical or historical linkages but rather material and political-economic interests, Southeast Asia remains an organic region where cultures, histories, language and ethnic identities overlap and cross-fertilize one another. These nations also opened the imperialised countries up to trade. These norms are posited to have constitutive effects which inform the regional behavior and foreign policy considerations of member states, thereby serving as the foundation for an ASEAN regional identity. Leifer, Michael. Indigenous Knowledge and Peoples Network for Capacity Building in Mainland Montane South-East Asia (IKAP) Network for Capacity Building in Mainland Southeast Asia. Tajfel, Henri. For instance, the Indonesians, Malaysians and Singaporeans have made repeated attempts to claim ownership over the shared heritage of the textile art of batik, shadow puppet theatre termed as the wayang kulit and traditional musical instruments such as the gamelan and angklung (Chong 2012). Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1971. ASEANs One Identity and One Community: A Slogan or a Reality? Yale Journal of International Affairs, March 14, 2016. "What impact did Western imperialism and colonialism have on Asia" . In the nineteenth century, the contradiction between . 7. By 1886 the rest of the region had been divided among the British, French, Dutch, and Spanish (who soon were replaced by the Americans), with the Portuguese still clinging to the island of Timor. Sharpe, Samuel. Modernization appeared to require such an approach, and the Thai did not hesitate to embrace it with enthusiasm. Here we may consider the story of Hang Tuah who did not see any contradictions with introducing himself as both a subject-servant of the Sultan of Melaka and an emissary of Raja Keling of Kalinga at the same time (Ahmad 1965). How did imperialism affect Latin America? He is also a member of the Young Leaders Program of the Honolulu-based Pacific Forum. Biba, Sebastian. Singapore: S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2007. Further research carried out by Christopher Roberts between 2004 and 2007 also demonstrates that a high level of distrust exists between the citizens and governments of ASEAN. Caporaso, James A. and Kim Min-hyung. 4 (November 2012): 400-415. It was also the case that, both because the war was going against them and because the response to other approaches was unenthusiastic, the Japanese were compelled before long to utilize local nationalism in their mobilization campaigns, again something quite impossible under European rule. Pedra Blanca: ICJ to hear Malaysias challenge in June. The Straits Times, April 7, 2018. http://www.straitstimes.com/politics/pedra-branca-icj-to-hear-malaysias-challenge-in-june. Still, despite Western disbelief, there was considerable resentment of colonial rule at the lower levels of society. Thus, they generally cast doubts for any sovereign states to be genuinely interested in the building of a shared community that is anchored on we-feelings. Bima Prawira Utama, PhD candidate, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia, Philippines British colonialism and imperialism were some of the most powerful forces in world history. Reid, Anthony Reid. Does public opinion count? New York: Random House, 1984. Under such an arrangement, it is not surprising that commonalities between states are often only highlighted wherever mutual benefit exists (Jones 2015). A statue of Sir Stamford Raffles marks the spot where he is believed to have first landed in 1819, on the north bank of the Singapore River . 7. For example, Pohnpei, an island state of the Federated States of . Moreover, if ASEAN wishes to achieve the goals of closer integration, a collective ASEAN identity must be developed not just among the political leaders and bureaucrats but also the general population of the region. Pre-colonial historical, cultural and social linkages that had existed prior to colonial rule were eventually replaced by a neater range of political allegiance in Southeast Asia. As a result of these divisive colonial policies, ethnic identities and differences were artificially accentuated which created an outlook of dichotomized, binary identities anchored by an othering mindset of Native vs. Aliens and Race vs. Race (Hirschman 1995). 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